Christian Ethics Essay

1.What is the difference between self-interest and selfishness? Why is this distinction important when considering the competitive market economy as appropriate for a society? a.Self-interest is when someone is trying to protect their interest, but they also take into account how it may affect others. Whereas selfishness is where one makes decisions based on one’s self with no regards to others. It’s important to decipher these two meanings when considering the competitive market and what may be appropriate for a society because if one is acting out based on self-interest, yes, they may be looking out for themselves, but they are also looking out for their customers. These are the type of people you can trust and want to invest your time and money into. People acting out of selfishness, figure out a way to get what they want and bail once they can’t make a profit anymore, leaving their customer in the dust. Also meaning, they’re going to be unreliable if a nd when times get tough and have no morals or obligations to the people who invest into them. 2.Does your textbook present only positive economics and avoid any normative economics? If not, give some examples of normative issues covered in your textbook. a.After reading Stapleford’s Bulls, Bears and Golden Calves, it is safe to say that any textbook for that matter doesn’t posess â€Å"only† positive economics and does in deed hold normative economics. As economist Roger Miller commented: â€Å"†¦the very choice of which topics to include in an introductory textbook involves normative economics. There is not a value-free, or objective, way to decide which topics to use in a textbook† (Stapleford, pg 43.) I decided to examine this a little further and came to find that in our Economics: Private and Public Choice by Gwartney and authors, it states in the Preface â€Å"This text addresses all of them and provides both economic analysis and empirical evidence that will enhance understanding of these critical issues†¦This thought was constantly on our minds as we revised this edition† (Gwartney, pg xix.) When I read that, personally that left the impression that these authors picked and chose what they thought was in the best interest of their students and even though they are stating the facts, they are also took into consideration when revising how it could help the reader relate to the information. 3.What did Adam Smith believe serves to curb self-interest in an economy? a.The one key thing that Smith believed controlled self-interest in the economy is competition. In one way or another, everyone has a desire for approval and it is because of this postivie judgement we seek also puts limits on our personal objectives. It is through competition amongst each other that promotes a controlled economy because it is not being run off of someone else’s personal agenda. If something appears to be hurtful or negative in the economy, then most likely it won’t succeed and people will move on to it’s compeititor. Whereas if something is highly valued and is seen as positive, chances are the business will thrive and they will be a customer for life. 4.What does it mean to seek the kingdom of God in a democratic capitalist economy? How can it be done? a.Democratic capitalism is neither the Kingdom of God nor without sin. But when we Christians seek the Kingdom of God, we seek â€Å"righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit† (Romans 14:17.) So when we seek the Kingdom of God in a democratic capitalist economy, we’re seeking to be â€Å"set free† from the temptations this earth has to offer, and focusing on the eternal life that awaits in God’s Kingdom. In order to do this though, requires us to be â€Å"enlightened† where we refocus our internal and external lives to his kingdom. â€Å"Jesus doesn’t ask us to set aside our self-interest; he just wants to keep us from making a poor investment† (Stapleford, pg 46.) References Gwartney, Stroup, Sobel, Macpherson. (2013). Economics: Private and Public Choice 14e. Mason, OH: South-Western. Stapleford, J. (2009). Bulls, Bears and Golden Calves. Madison, WI: IntraVarsity Press.

Black Rage-Book Report Essay

The pages of human history daubed in bloodshed and thickly coated with ethnic, racial conflicts ask a crying question. How to make this Planet Earth heaven -like? The answer is simple and direct. Eyes full of understanding, heart full of love and the life that refuses conflicts—these alone are enough! When an individual or a people of a particular race are constantly nagged and abused, condemned and ostracized by the society, they become bitter and cynical individuals. Heartfelt care and concern, an understanding approach and tender regard for their feelings are necessary pre-requisites to heal their inner wounds. Adequate opportunities need to be created for their ‘reformation’ and ‘rehabilitation’ into the mainstream of the society. The authors feel that it is not an easy task. Each and every molecule of the Negro race is surcharged with the hidden grudge as for the inhuman treatment meted out to them in all walks of life, from the cradle to the grave and from the womb to the tomb and this process continued for centuries. They were branded from birth as ‘niggers. ’ This insult on their personality is difficult to condone. Brief summary of the book: This is a classic work on black identity. This is also criticized as one of the sexiest books. Slavery is no ordinary crime against humanity. The book explains the race relations and its dynamics in the day to day living of the blacks vs. whites. How at each step of the ladder the blacks were pulled down, how they were made to stumble at deliberately created hurdles by the whites, how slavery dynamics deeply impact the cross-racial sexual relationships etc. It is one thing to have freedom and protection for the essential human dignity of the individual legally. It is good to have uniform constitutional rights for whites and blacks. But what mattes is the interpretation of the laws and their applicability to the ground level situations, concerning the blacks. The book is an authentic source of inspiration to the educated younger generation of blacks, and for the African psychologists of the day. The book cites case studies and they are properly dealt with. The point by point analysis of the â€Å"intra-psychic† dynamics of Black life in every day America is extremely informative and an eye-opener. Blacks, in many parts of the world where the whites were the dominating community, suffered, and in USA they suffered intensely. The authors are psychiatrists by profession and they are eminently suited to treat this subject. The inner conflicts and the desperation of back life, how they carry on with their back to the wall existence—all these have been highlighted, with the zeal of pursuing the truth. As the black race is exposed to various social situations related to the individual growth through education, employment, achievement of status in life, the intra-racial problems have begun to crop up with great intensity. The authors cite the case of an educated school teacher, marrying a laborer. They explain: â€Å"†¦She was embarrassed by his poor education. He felt that she and her friends were â€Å"phony† and that she was preoccupied with maintaining senseless appearances. Their mutual hostility led to verbal and later physical assaults. Divorce was the result. This pattern is so common in Negro marriages that it deserves special study, which might shed light on the broader problems of how in America choice of mate and marriage in general is influenced by a person’s blackness. †(p. 75) The authors put forth strong arguments that black people living in a racist, white dominated society have suffered and are suffering psychological pressure by the effects of racist oppression. This sometimes, has the telling effect in on the day to day disposition and black people act in unpredictable manner. The thesis of the book: Will the country ever awake in to that heaven of freedom, and when it will be free from the division of narrow domestic walls created by race prejudices? What you do to mitigate the mental barrier of racial discrimination on so many counts is not important. How you do, what you do is indeed important. More acts and legislations have helped to create a stir in the minds of whites and blacks. But the problem eludes permanent solution. This is so, because the feeling of superiority within the minds of the whites has to change. When the thought process will change, the action process will also change! When the thoughts are changed, the mind is changed; when the mind is changed, the man is changed; when the man is changed, the society is changed; when the society is changed, the Nation is changed. Then only we can way that plenty and prosperity engulfs USA, not otherwise! The contents and arguments in the book contain too much sex, much more than required by the literary standards. But some times, these issues are beyond the control of the authors. Firstly the book must sell. This is the prime objective of the publisher. Fortunately or unfortunately, sex sells. If it is handled well, it sells well. This could be one of the reasons for the extra dose of sex in the book—this may not be as well! This book has about 230 pages with 10 chapters, Who’s angry, the shadow of the past, achieving womanhood, acquiring manhood, marriage and love, character traits, the â€Å"Promise† of education, mental illness and treatment, and how come there’s so much hate and black rage. In a nutshell, the contents of the book discuss and analyze the bitter past of slavery in USA, the tension-ridden race relations in USA today, and the future of black and white race relations which have the possibilities to turn worst, on the slightest provocation, when the black race is making its presence felt strongly, in political, social, and economic spheres. In sports, blacks are dominating! The blacks accepted the domination of the white race-will the whites accept the domination of the black race in times to come? Will the law of divine retribution work in this context? Identify the evidence used by the author to support his/ her thesis That which is evident requires no introduction, elaboration, or appreciation. Light is bright and it is evident. Milk is white and it is evident. Simply say black race in America, and everything is evident. The saga of suffering of the Negro race, the era of slavery, violence and cruelty to subdue their legitimate aspirations rotates on the curtain of one’s mind. The authors of Black Rage do not mince words when it comes to condemning the atrocities committed on the black race. â€Å"The voice of black America has been heard in the explosions of Watts, Newark, and Detroit,† they warn. (p. 3) They assert their aspiration in strongest terms. â€Å"Black people continue to revolt against laws and customs that are deadly and humiliating†¦Aggression leaps from wounds inflicted and ambitions spiked. It grows out of oppression and capricious cruelty. †(p. 3). The younger generation of Negroes is not willing to wait and accept ‘the tactful handling of the situation’ by the whites when their interests matter. The white race is not willing to travel in the boat where the rudder is controlled by the black. The blacks are aware, by their bitter past experiences that the whites will go to any extent when their own interests matter. This causes more frustration and apprehension in the black community and adversely affects their psyche. The example cited in the text is that of Jimmy, a twelve year old boy. â€Å"His face was jet-black, and his expressions ranged from somber to sad. Whether relating stories of home, school, or the streets, he disguised his true feelings. At twelve he had learned one of his first lessons–always play it cool. As much as possible, he worked to hide his inner life. One day he stared long and hard at his fist and said: â€Å"I want to hit a white man. †(p. 59) State your own opinion and ideas about this book. The book contains tough opinions about the white race. To tell a black youngster to forget the past, say that he is constitutionally protected and enjoys equal rights as applicable to whites or any ethnic group is as good as telling him a story. The suffering of the Negro race is something very special and closely linked to the destiny of America. The black can condone the past; they can not ignore or forget it. The whites are not obliging the blacks by the present stance of understanding them. They have no other alternative. They must accept their newfound social position—equal in every respect as compared to the black people and it is their duty to say that the black-brother is first among the equal. They must attempt and secure the transformation within. The writers put it crisply and authoritatively. â€Å"After all, the thoughts begin, the Negro is also an American and if he is different it is only matter of degree. Cliches are brought forth and there is a lengthy recitation of the names of famous Negroes. Long association has bred feelings of familiarity which masquerade as knowledge. But there remain puzzles about black people; all is not understood; something is missing. †(p. 23) â€Å"It is better to have a world united than a world divided; but it is better to have a world divided, than a world destroyed,† said Sir Winston Churchill at the time of II World War. Presently, does this quote apply to the solution for the race problem in USA? USA will never be divided in geographical terms, the Constitution of USA is strong enough, the political leaders have enough foresight, but the example given in the book is shocking and is the definite pointer, how the division of the hearts is complete. How Come There’s So Much Hate? â€Å"When the man died, his wife of forty years was pitied by her friends. The widow was a stern New Englander; her dead husband was a black. In spite of strong social disapproval of their marriage, they had raised children and prospered. There had been some discord between them, but they handled it discreetly and the children had never heard them comment on racial matters. Even when a racial incident was prominent in the news, not a word was said about it. The children assumed that their mother had long since accepted the realities of marriage to a black man. They were completely unprepared for her words when her husband died: â€Å"Thank God that nigger is gone! â€Å"(p. 181) Spirituality, not religion, seems to be the only answer to this vexed problem of race relations. Once a human being crosses the mind barrier, all differences all tensions, cease! Mind is a bundle of negative and positive thoughts. The usual methods of suppressing the thoughts and emotions are not going to bring permanent peace. If the Negro race has to surrender at any point, it has got to be the dynamic surrender, of a supreme and brave human being. They should not accept the supremacy of the white race, nor demand the pound of flesh for the historical misdeeds of the whites. If the revengeful attitude persists, it will take them and the Nation nowhere. If the Nation does not survive how will the black and white races survive?

Euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Euthanasia - Essay Example Of course, in relieving the pain, the victim has to pay the ultimate price. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the person’s life is eventually lost, many people across the world are presently advocating for the legalization of the so called â€Å"mercy killing†. Their argument is based solely on the fact that killing is the only way of relieving people from unbearable pain. However, legalizing euthanasia has the potential of causing grave consequences to the society. First, it can lead to a very high rate of death by euthanasia, a situation that may likely be unacceptable by a large proportion of the society. Basically there are three reasons why euthanasia must not be legalized in our society. These reasons are: ethical, religious and practical (Goel, 2008). Ethics is the most important reason why euthanasia must not be legalized. Many analysts are of the opinion that legalizing euthanasia will properly make people believe that killing a sick patient is normal and thus a right thing to do (Aramesh & Shadi, 2007). According the argument, even the introduction of a voluntary euthanasia can not the change the mentality as voluntary euthanasia itself is the very first step toward adoption of involuntary euthanasia, which of course is a great blow to individual right to life. Right from creation, life is seen as an inalienable right of every human. Thus, it will be very wrong and unethical for doctors to end the life of some people whom they describe as being unworthy to live. Euthanasia is naturally against the professional ethics of the medical doctors, who are specifically trained to prevent patients from dying or becoming seriously ill. Thus, ending patients’ lives, whom ordinarily they are supposed to protect, can never be an option. Moreover, killing patients absolutely contradict the famous Hippocratic Oath. This oath, which has been in

Private Schoolls Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Private Schoolls - Essay Example For as many wonderful public schools that exist, there are also those that perform under the bar. Unfortunately for most families, children must go to the public school that their home is zoned in. Usually there is a perceived or statistically supported issue with a public school's academic record that flags a parent's concern and willingness to move their child into a private school. Private schools usually have a more rigorous academic reputation. But within the public school system, Charter Schools and Magnet schools both blur the distinction between public and private schools. Related to the academic reputation is the focus of the school on college preparation. Within the public school system, the percent of children that go on to college differs depending on the location of the school. You can't lump all the schools together. However, you can look at the school's overall focus and whether it is on college preparation or not (and whether that is your shared focus). School Size and Class Size can be correlated to a school's ability to execute on its academic goals. Basically, when a school gets too big, it can become burdensome to administer. Students and programs may fall into the cracks. But a school that is too small may not have enough money to support specialized programs. Class size is another factor that parents will look into when considering private or public school. How many children will the classroom teacher be responsible What is the overall student to teacher ratio Usually, the smaller the class size, the more attention each individual student will receive. Safety at school and the general school environment is another factor that parents use to decide whether or not to keep their children in public school or move them into private school. Many public schools have perfectly safe environments, yet in some school districts, children may be safer in private schools. Some of this may have to do with the fact that private schools may pick and choose who they enroll, therefore keeping their classroom milieu safer. Special programs impact parents in two different ways when considering private versus public schooling. Because public schools have a responsibility to teach all students, public schools often have in place special programs for children with special needs (whether it is academically or mentally). Private schools, while they may have special programs for gifted students, will rarely have programs for children with special needs unless that is what the private school specializes in. There are also other kinds of special programs, for example, ones that specialize in the arts. Military, boarding, and single-sex programs are usually only found in a private setting. Cost is another important factor that impacts the private school versus public school decision. Simply put, private schools charge tuition whereas public schools are

Southern and northern chinese business negotiations Essay

Southern and northern chinese business negotiations - Essay Example The compulsions of the present times require versatility in the work ideology and functioning, thus making it imperative that individuals and firms, embrace the multi-cultural to meet the challenges with efficiency and unmatched proficiency. Emerging markets are crucial in the era of globalization and can be defined as the new area with high income and where the demand for the product can be created with relative success. Cases of developing economies like China and India are prime examples that have huge potential for developing markets. China, with its fast developing economy, is a strong emerging market that has tremendous scope for the multinational companies. We would therefore be looking at the factors that have significant impact on the business negotiations and analyzing those factors for their role and impact on the company’s marketing policies and strategies in such market conditions because market strategies need to be tailored according to the environmental conditions of the place. China is the fastest developing economy that has captured a large market segment of the world market in the last decade and a half. The country also boasts of a highly cultural society that takes pride in its more than thousand years old culture and firmly believes in conducting its business within the broader framework of its cultural values and business ethics. The vast differences in the socio cultural values of the eastern countries and the western countries have complicated the business negotiation techniques which need to be further explored for better understanding of cross cultural values and business ethics. The purpose of the study is to examine the factors that influence the business negotiations of China with the international business community at large and the West in particular. In the fast changing global equation of socio economic development, it is

Suicide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Suicide - Essay Example Even though suicide affects other people who are related to the victim, there are situations whereby it seems applicable, especially when the person is undergoing problems in life that makes him/her lose its meaning. In the criminal justice systems whereby suicide is regarded as a crime, one often wonders whether incarceration of the victim brings back the lost meaning of life to an individual. It seems logical to assist the victim to overcome the problem rather than considering it a crime that is punishable. It is often assumed that incarceration deters suicidal decisions. Incarceration may not provide what the person desired in life, and after completing the imprisonment term he/she might get back to the same problems that led to suicidal thoughts. In such a case, Barak (2007) observes that there is no reason to believe that the person will not try a more effective way to terminate his/her life. There are situations whereby incidences similar to suicide have been allowed. For example, voluntary euthanasia leads to the termination of a person's life upon his/her request to avoid escalating suffering or other benefits which the person alleges (Bertolote & Fleischmann 2002). This can be regarded as assisted form of suicide. Some states such as Washington and Oregon as well as countries such as Switzerland, Netherlands and Belgium amongst others allow physicians to conduct voluntary euthanasia (Ursula, 2009). One wonders whether there is a difference between voluntary euthanasia and suicide. This is because in both cases, an individual focuses on death as the only solution to personal problem. The difference is the method of dying, with... Suicide is one of the controversial issues in the criminal justice systems of many states. This is because many views are held by different people regarding the right to take one’s own life. Suicide involves taking one's life intentionally as a result of contemplation on his or her life, and finding that the most appropriate thing to do is to put life to an end. People may do it because of depression, embarrassment or humiliation, remorse and extreme anxiety among other reasons. Governments have a role in protecting the lives of citizens, and there are usually no provisions of the kinds of death that people should be protected from. Suicide is one of the controversial issues in criminal justice. Criminalization of suicide raises questions as to whether a person does not have freedom over his life so long as it does not affect the freedoms of others. People usually commit suicide as a solution to problems that they face in life. Incarceration does not help them to solve these p roblems. It escalates the problem leading to more desire to die. However, the death of a parent through suicide denies the children the right to grow up under the care of a parent and may necessitate prevention of suicide. Many criminal justice systems globally criminalize suicide while they legalize voluntary euthanasia, which leads to inconsistencies in approaching issues regarding the rights and freedoms of a person over his/her life. However, each person needs to be allowed ownership of oneself and personal freedom to decide on whether to live or die.

Russian revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Russian revolution - Essay Example 'What Is Happening in Russia' was one of many documents written and published by Vladimir Lenin while he lived outside of Russia; these were distributed throughout his home country and eagerly awaited by the activists and Communist thinkers he had left behind. It was with this chapter that Lenin first publicly commented on the events that had occurred prior to publishing; specifically the worker protests that had occurred in Russia between the self-declared proletariat and the Czarist forces. The military forces triumphed, but Lenin and the rest of the world looked on the Russian activists as the instigators to a revolution that was only just beginning. Students of the Russian Revolution have always read reflective essays and texts concerning the events that led up to the Russian Revolution, but rarely do they have a glimpse of first-hand doctrine and commentary from that era, specifically in the years before the major conflicts. Not only do primary sources heighten the learning experience and give first-hand context to historical events, but to read the words and thoughts of someone as integral to the Russian Revolution as Vladimir Lenin gives an entirely new slant to basic course studies. Through this piece of writing, one can get a feel not only for the attitude of Russians at the time, but of foreign countrymen as well. At the time Lenin wrote this piece, he had been a victim of prejudice for his political views for so long and to such an extreme extent that he didn't feel safe living in Russia anymore. His writing was a way for him to stay connected with the Communists at home in Russia and to continue inspiring them to want change. Lenin believed that the masses in Russia were largely unaware of their poor position in the strict class society, but that with persuasion they were slowly coming to terms with it and looking for a way out. The worker protests that occurred in the early 20th century clearly gave Lenin hope and a small sense of pride in his countrymen for their efforts. He did believe, however, that the failure of these protests called for pause and reflection so that future revolts might be more successful. When 'What Is Happening in Russia' was published, it was before the major events of the Russian Revolution had yet occurred; because of the timing of this piece of writing, students will be able to cultivate an excellent knowledge of the atmosphere of the times. Lenin references the growing unrest among Russian workers towards their classist, Czarist system, as well as their growing willingness to become proactive in changing their own lives and the lives of millions of disenfranchised Russians across the entire country. He refers to the Communist activists as "taking their first tentative steps" towards change and equality, "defining their objectives" in protest. Because of his position outside the country at the time, Lenin makes several references to international misunderstandings of the Russian state of mind, explaining that although foreign newspapers were mixing up their terms in reference to Russia and its protests, the basic opinion of the international community was that these outbursts of the public were the beginning of something bigger. He

Water and oil separator Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Water and oil separator - Essay Example Water and Oil separators that are properly, designed, operated and installed can provide a treatment system to be used in handling of oily wastewater. This can help prevent any entry of an unacceptable levels of contamination to either a sanitary sewer system or storm sewer (Grigsby 54). However, water and oil separators are never designed to help separate high concentration of oils or solids from water such as large quantity of sludge or oil that is poured or spilled in the wash bay drain. It is, therefore, important for the people tasked with discharging wastewater into water and oil separators to understand their principle of operation, and their limitations. This will help prevent pollution of the environment. This paper discusses the common types of water oil separator systems. The focus is on their principle of operation, and the common properties of typical water and oil wastewater streams. Currently, there are two types of oil water separators (U.S. Army Aberdeen Test Centre, 27). These two exist in varying designs. The first design, which is also the oldest, is called the conventional/gravity separation or API separator, and the coalescing design or parallel corrugated plate. The conventional/gravity design provides a certain tank width, depth and length that gives a wide, and quiet spot within the pipeline. This times for the oil to rise. This API design depends on the large water volume and can provide about 100 ppm discharge oil concentration on a 150-micron droplet size. This correlates with the size of the tank, which can potentially hold 5 times the size on sized coalescing separator. On the other hand, the coalescing design or parallel corrugated plate has a large surface area that is in contact with coalescing plates (the waste stream). This design has a coalescing media, which causes the size of the tank to reduce. It also increases efficiency of its performance. The separation process

Women civil right movement, the first wave of the 1920's Research Paper - 1

Women civil right movement, the first wave of the 1920's - Research Paper Example Similarly, this ideal was the basis for the Equal Rights Amendment Act campaign in 1970. The first wave of the 1920s had thus begun and its end came when women got the right to vote in 1920 (Wood & Fixmer-Oraiz 61-62). Following 2 days of debate and discussion, the initial women’s rights movement in Seneca Falls in New York, ended with the signing of the Declaration of Sentiments by 68 women and 32 men that saw the grievances of women being pointed out and the agenda for women’s rights movement being set. The declaration contained 12 points that were centered on voting rights of women and equality between women and men in the law. Two years later, the first National Women’s Rights Convention took place in Massachusetts where over 1000 participants were present and this saw the beginning of the annual national conventions till 1860 with the exception of 1857. May of 1869 saw Elizabeth Stanton and Susan Anthony form the National Women Suffrage Association whose primary objective was to institute a Congressional amendment to the Constitution that would make it possible for women to realize voting rights. In November of the same year, the American Women Suffrage Association is for med by Henry Blackwell, Lucy Stone and others and this organization solely sought to make amendments to individual states’ laws in order to realize the attainment of voting rights of women. Lucy Stone was recognized as becoming the foremost woman documented to maintain her own name subsequent to marriage. Wyoming became the first state to pass the women’s suffrage law in 10th December 1869 and in the following year women start to participate in juries in their state (DuBois 74-77). In 1890, the National Woman Suffrage Association together with the American Women Suffrage Association merged to come up with the National American Women Suffrage Association. This became the movement’s mainstream organization and as such set out on

Interview Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Interview - Assignment Example Latifah insisted that she is controlled and restricted by sharia since Quran does not allow her to dispute or do anything inconsistent with sharia. She said that every action that is not commendable or is not as per Allah’s commands and teachings may make subject a Muslim to trouble in the Day of Judgment. It is therefore required of her, as a Muslim to abstain from committing sin or getting involved in any form of undesirable act. As a Muslim, Latifah said that she is obliged to humble herself in prayer and show gentleness while debating with people. She also added that she is expected to shoo patience and perseverance while undergoing persecution or even oppression while facing the enemy as per Allah’s instructions and commands. Additionally, she confirmed to me that she is forced to adhere to the Islamic morals whether she benefits or not from them without caring what non-Muslims think about her. She said that everything she does ranging from her talks to her style o f clothing is purely based on morality and the general moral health of a society. Latifah said that the notion that a Muslim woman is uncontrollably oppressed by the culture, which is profoundly ingrained in the society, is very wrong and misleading. She said that Islamic culture and morals have to the highest degree contributed to the coercion of a Muslim woman as keenly explained in this piece of writing.The patriarchal domination has sharply developed the foundation in which a Muslim woman’s status is discriminated. The administrations, for instance, in Iran and Saudi Arabia have upheld their status quo regarding the women’s place in the society simply because the Quran requires them to. As a Muslim woman, Latifah said that sharia law requires her social status to remain low right from her residence, learning institutions and as a final point in matrimony. It all over again begins from marriage flipside to the social order. She said that what others call discriminat ion and male chauvinism in Islamic world has saved marriages and maintained a strong societal values. However, she asserts that her right as a Muslim woman has not been infringed in any way. According to the Islamic culture, men are reputed to be superior to their female matching part. However, Quran defines women as a mother whom her feet, paradise lies. A woman is also regarded as a daughter, sister of men and a wife who acts as a source of comfort for their husbands. There is therefore sense of gender equality as per Allah’s teachings that greatly differ from the popular assumption that a Muslim woman is oppressed. Women are considered important in the society because they are responsible for nurturing, reformation and infusion of principles and faith into the souls of both men and women. Nevertheless, she pointed out that there are some cultures and beliefs that are not Islamic that seem to oppress women in the society. Latifah gave an example of lack of proper education amongst women to be contributed by the society’s culture and traditions but not a Quran requirement. Muslim women are not stripped of their morality and chastity as women in other parts of the world who are depicted badly or rather immorally in the media and even in the society. Latifah said that their dressing style is very respectful and does not expose her body parts for the public to see. She said that contradicting the Sharia and its morals may land someone to immoral behaviors that some people call civilization. She believes that

Shawshank Redemption vs Romulus My Father Essay Example for Free

Shawshank Redemption vs Romulus My Father Essay Belonging refers to a sense of feeling accepted or welcome either physically or spiritually to a group or club. â€Å"A feeling of belonging depends on a strong relationship, developed over a period of time†. This statement suggests that a strong relationship is created or evolved over a period of time, it is evident in todays society through terms such as â€Å"childhood friends†. The sentiment â€Å"A feeling of belonging depends on a strong relationship, developed over a period of time† is portrayed in my text â€Å"Romulus my Father† by Raimond Gaita and my related text the movie â€Å"The Shawshank Redemption† directed by Frank Darabont. In â€Å"Shawshank Redemption† the year is 1947 and Andy Dufresne is ordered to serve two life sentences in Shawshank Prison for the murder of his wife and her lover. Inside, Andy is subjected to violent attacks from brutal guards and fellow inmates. Slowly, he begins to make friends ,one of the most most important friendship is the one he forms with Red, who has also been convicted of murder and is Shawshanks resident black-market dealer. During his time in prison, Andys previous experience as a banker earns him favour with the guards and especially the warden ,as he begins to manage their financial affairs, soon moving on to laundering money for them. In return, Andy is permitted special privileges , which includes working in the wardens office and being able to establisha prison library for the inmates. Eventually Andys innocence is proven. However, by this time, Andy is nowhere to be found and the warden and Shawshank are left sinking in a sea of scandal. Through his time in imprisonment he creates many friendships and alliances with the guards and the inmates, however he never gives up his belief in himself and he never looses his sense of belonging to the outside world like many of the inmates. He refuses to become institutionalized. He always believed in his innocence and believed he belonged on the â€Å"outside†. Like Raimond in Romulus my father Andy Dufresne both characters do not conform to their surroundings. Raimonds surroundings being mental illness and Andy’s being institutionalization. This is due to a strong sense in their own personal belonging they know where they belong and how they belong and their surroundings will not effect nor change this. The two main characters also find or in Andy’s case creates an area where they feel safe and secure . For Andy this was his library . A place where he feels at home away from the violence of the prison. A place where he can be who he use to be, a place to belong away from the harshness of prison life . A glimmer of his past . Raimond also has a place where he feels safe and that was anywhere his dog was . His dog provides feeling of safety of being needed by another living being . Of felling a sense of belonging and acceptance that no human could replicate. Time serves as both a source of torment as well as the backdrop for the slow, eventual achievement of Andy’s escape to where he feels he belongs, his seemingly impossible goal for nearly twenty-eight years. Shawshank redefines the passage of time for the inmates, especially for the â€Å"lifers† like Andy and Red, who can only look forward to death. Hours can seem like a lifetime, and every day seems indistinguishable from the next, adding to the loneliness and burden of imprisonment. Ironically, however, time also proves to be the means of Andy’s escape and salvation and gives him hope throughout his quarter-century in Shawshank. It is ironic that the inmates feel as they don’t belong in jail, there is a scene in the movies where one of the inmates Brooks is release from prison after spending a life sentence who is released and feels that he doesn’t belong this is evident thought the quote â€Å"I cant believe how fast thing move on the out side† her refers to the world as the â€Å"outside† this projects a sense of not belonging to society. Brooks then goes on to say â€Å" maybe I should get me a gun, n rob the food way so they’d send me home† . He feels more sense of belonging inside a prison than he does out in the real world. He feels outcast not through his actions but through the passage of time â€Å"the world went and got themselves into a big dam hurry† . The passage of time in Shawshank redemption has created a strong relationship between the inmates and the prison a feeling of belonging, time has changed the world they once knew to a totally different world that is alien to them, thus institutionalizing them to a world they feel comfortable. ‘Romulus, My Father‘ composed by Raimond Gaita is an autobiographical memoir of his fathers life. It explores the Assimilation to Australian Culture in the Eyes on Raimond Gaita general hardships of migrants moving from Europe, and how he comes to belong to Australia. In â€Å"Romulus My Father† the most profound sense of belonging exists with the narrator himself. The narrator delivers his observations in a reflective and thoughtful tone. The high modality of verb choice suggests a pleasant nostalgia about events in the book. Particularly his recollections of his father, notions such as, â€Å"I loved him too deeply†¦ no quarrel could estrange us† displays the sense of belonging \ he feels with his father. This is evident even after Christina dies. He observed, â€Å"We came together as son and husband with the woman whose remains lay beneath us†. Raimond’s aspect of belonging is that of family and culture. Juxtaposed against Raimond’s belonging is the suffering of Christina in her displacement. For the mother her inability to belong is described by Raimond as, â€Å"a troubled city girl, she could not settle†¦. in a landscape that highlighted her isolation†. Raimond’s melancholy tone conveys how Christine could not fit into the community and in Australia. As a result her isolation and alienation lead her to betray the institution of family juxtaposed by â€Å"I felt awkward with her,† which shows his relationship with his mother has lost the familial belonging it once contained. The landscape plays a harsh role in ‘Romulus, My Father’, as ‘the landscape is one of rare beauty, to a European or English eye it seems desolate’ page 14. Relating to culture shock also, Romulus ‘could not become reconciled to it’ as ‘the eucalypts of Baringhup, scraggy except for the noble red gums on the riverbank, seemed symbols of deprivation and barrenness. page 14. This lack of belonging even in the landscape of Australia for Romulus creates the notion that he felt connected to his native lands in Europe, and without that connection he feels as though he does not belong. However, this can also be viewed that Romulus does not understand the land and therefore cannot appreciate its unique beauty, highlighted where ‘he set fire to the stock in order to kill the snake†¦an immigrant unused to the tinder-dry conditions of an Australian summer’ page 28. Romulus was then harshly unaccepted as ‘The local newspaper ridiculed the New Australian for his folly. ’ He partially redeemed himself in the eyes of locals where he saved Neil Mikkelsen from dying after he fell from a ladder. This can be contrasted to Raimond’s perception of the Australian landscape, one who had grown up with the land, ‘the key to the beauty of the native trees lay in the light which so sharply delineated them against a dark blue sky†¦the sight provoked a surge of affection for my primitive home. pg 62. Belonging shapes who we are. â€Å"Romulus My Father† by Raimond Gaita explores how â€Å"A feeling of belonging depends on a strong relationship, developed over a period of time†. â€Å"The Shawshank redemption† directed by Frank Darabont explores the need for belonging by gamers seeking a place in society and how time can disconnect one from somewhere they one belonged. Together these texts allow us to examine bo th positive and negative aspects time has on belonging.

Role Of Language In Semantics And Society English Language Essay

Role Of Language In Semantics And Society English Language Essay language plays a very important role in human lives. It is a social phenomenon. One of the main goals of language is to communicate with people and to understand them. When someone speaks, he intends a specific purpose. He wants to convey a message through that language. A person uses his language to many different purposes for example, to express his feelings, to ask for help and to apologize. In fact, we use language in many different ways, some of these are, the informational, the expressive, the directive, the phatic, the aesthetic. We use language and that language is a part of society. Actually, any language varies according to , the nature of the society, what kind of people, and their attitudes. People use language according to their situation. The social background of any person can play an important role in the kind of language he has. I am going to discuss these functions and take some examples of each one. I will explain the relationship between language and social organization. Meaning: Since we are discussing semantic and society. It is important to give a quick look on meaning. In fact, creating a theory of meaning is still the goal of many scientists . In order to have a theory of meaning, we have to rely on scientific grounds. There are two arguments that tried to explain meaning by scientific means. The contextualism approach to meaning led by the British linguist Firth. The contextualists said that in order to study meaning scientifically, we have to focus on the context and situation. If a word is studied in relation to context, this eliminates other interpretations of the meaning of the word . Contextualists and behaviorists agree on many points. Bloomfield explained his opinion on contextualism by the famous example of Jack and Jill. Jack reacted to the response of Jill when he saw her face. Then, he climbed the tree and got the apple. So, the main focus for the contextualists was that should not be studied in isolation. Words should observable situation. The mentalists approach to meaning led by Chomsky was the opposite view to the contextualists approach. The mentalists main focus was on the mind. They focus on concepts which are abstract, in contrast to the contextualists who refused to believe in such abstract entities. The mentalists approach was to find ways to control intuition. To bake intuition objective was their goal. Language and the society : There is a strong relationship between language and society. I mean, that the language of any society is influenced by the society. For example, In Riyadh, when they mention the word family, it means the wife. So, it is clear that we mean the social context into which the language being communicate between individuals. Language has many connotations reflecting language, the norms of society, which is spoken by the traditions and culture. In fact, any community affects in linguistic phenomena at different levels. phonetics, Semantics, morphology and structure all are affected by the community. It is impossible to imagine a society without a language. Also, it is impossible to imagine the existence of language outside the community. We cannot deny the fact that the language is of a very important function, can be summarized in two things: The first one is an individual: to help the individual of achieving his needs his in society. The second is a social sincere: is to create a situation appropriate for the composition of society and social life. It was here that the individual depends on the language to fulfill his needs. Any language has a strong effect in the life of the individual. It represents the means of communication with others. And through that connection with others, he or she achieve his things and get their wishes. It is also the best means of expressing his hopes and the pain and emotions. ØÙ„ØØ ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ قؠ±ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã…  ÃƒËœÃ‚ © للكلÙ†¦ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ª ØلقØÙ†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ ØلقØÙ†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Øلن¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Language is very important factor of communication among society. Using language has some functions. We need to use language to fulfill our needs. It is a crucial part in our life. If a person uses his language, he chooses words that matches his needs. People use some functions to say a sentence, to ask, to reply, to greet and etc. In fact, forms are important part of our discussion because they are related to functions. A person who says, What is your name? he is showing a form of a question. Let us take another example, I want to play football, functions as a statement. Five functions of language: Actually, Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). Mentioned that language has five functions. They are: Informational 2- Expressive 3- Directive 4- phatic 5- Aesthetic I am going to discuss every function. Informational function which every one tends to assume is most important Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). In fact, this function concentrates on the message. It is used to give new information. It depends on truth and value. Let us look at this example, the car is big, the bus is crowded. language can have an expressive function: that is, it can be used to express its originators feelings and attitudes swear words and exclamations are the most obvious instance of this. Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). The speaker or writer of this function tries to express his feelings. He or she reflexes his or her impression. This function could give a clear image for the personality of the speaker or writer. The best example of this kind is Poetry and literature . In fact, this function evoke certain feelings and express feelings. Examples of this kind are, I am very happy or I spent a wonderful vacation. We can see from the previous examples that they reflex the feelings of the speaker or the writer. The third function of language is the directive function whereby we aim to influence the behavior or attitudes of others. The most straightforward instances of the directive function are commands and requests. This function of social control places emphasis on the receivers end, rather than the originators end of the message: but it resembles the expressive function in giving less importance, on the whole, to conceptual meaning than to other types of meaning, particularly affective and connotative meaning Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). Examples of this kind are, I want a cup of tea or close the door. It is clear hear that, we use the language in a direct way. We ask someone to do something. Some times we can use a sentence to express two functions. For example, I am thirsty. The previous example could be used to show the condition of the speaker or writer or to express the feeling. In a way that a person asks someone to give him water. The fourth function is the aesthetic function, which is the use of language for the sake of the linguistic artifact itself, and for no purpose. This aesthetic function can have at least as much to do with conceptual as with affective meaning Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). The function associated with the message-the vehicle-is the poetic or aesthetic function: the sign taken as an end in itself. All art understood as art is taken to embody this function, and any object valued for its beauty rather than for its ideological value or usefulness-whether a gorgeous car, an elegant teapot, or some acreage of untouched real estate-takes on this function. Jakobson, R. (1933). According to Leech, the fifth function is the phatic function. the function of keeping communication lines open, and keeping social relationships in good repair ( in Britain culture, talking about the weather is a well-known example of this). Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). We can say about this function that it is used for normal talks. An example of this, when two people meet each other accidently in a place. They start talking about something unimportant for the sake of communication like, how are you? How is your children? And so on. We can say that it is a kind of daily talking. It is not meaning but is good. Language functions according to H. Douglas Brown Actually, many authors have classified functions of language. We are going to take the functions of language from the point of H. Douglas Brown . H. Douglas Brown has classified function of language into seven types. This classification is not much different from that of Leech. The functional approach to describing language is one that has its roots in the traditions of British linguists J,R Firth, who reviewed language as interactive and interpersonal, away of behaving and making others behave Berns, ( 1984). These functions according to H. Douglas Brown are : The instrumental function serves to manipulate the environment, to cause certain events to happen. Sentences like, This court finds you guilty, on your mark, get set, go! Or dont touch the stove, have an instrumental function: they are communicative acts that have specific perlocutionary force : they bring about a particular condition H. Douglas Brown.(2007). As we see, the previous examples are direct. They are commands as in, go! Or statements as in, the court finds you guilty. It also used for children when they ask for something like, want milk or bring water. The second function is the regulatory function of language. This kind is used to express approval or disapproval. An example of this kind is, come here. The third function is the representational function which is the use of language to make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain or report that is, to represent reality as one sees it. H. Douglas Brown.(2007). Example of this kind are, My car is new or I want to go to France. The fourth function is the interactional function of language. This kind serves to ensure social maintenance. ( phatic communication), Malinowskis term referring to the communicative contact between and among human beings that simply allows them to establish social contact and keep channels of communication open is part of interactional function of language H. Douglas Brown.(2007). In fact, this kind a person who is well-known with social talk like, slang and jokes. We can use this to make relationship with other people. For example, I love you or you are a nice person. The fifth function is the personal function. This function allows a speaker to express feelings, emotions and personality. A person individuality is usually characterized by his or her use of the personal function of communication. H. Douglas Brown.(2007). The sixth function is the heuristic function. involves language used to acquire knowledge , to learn about the environment. Heuristic functions are often conveyed in the form of question that will lead to answers. Children typically make good use of the heuristic function in their incessant. Douglas Brown.(2007). It is a nice way that it used to recall information. It answers all question that a person has in the mind. This function helps to acquire knowledge. An example of this is, What the capital of Saudi Arabia?. The seventh function is the imaginative function which serves to create imaginary systems or ideas. Telling fairy tales, joking or writing a novel are all uses of the imaginative function. Douglas Brown.(2007). When we look at the two classification, we find that these two classification not much difference. On the other, they are similar. For example, the interactional function of language tries to make relationship with other people and to build relationships. We can say it is the (Elevator talk). It is the same as phatic function. This term is used for unimportant matters. Language has many functions that convey different messages. Actually, many authors have discuss this issue and there were some differences among them particularly in terms of number. I discuss two classifications concerning this issue and they were different. Leech mentioned five functions and Douglas Brown mentioned seven functions. There is, Roman Jackson who mentioned six functions of language. Jacksons lists includes six functions, the referential, function is that the most generally is acknowledged as important, though it has perhaps less significance than we generally grant it. It refers to the fact that we need to pass one new information to others. The emotive function refers to the fact that we can convey information about the emotional state of the speaker at the same time as giving other information to the listener. Roman Jakson,(1960). It is clear here that it is the expressive function but here, it is labeled under the emotional state. the poetic function describes as f ocus on the message itself. This function does not give much importance to the new information Roman Jakson,(1960). This function is called stylistic function. I have to clarify here that poetic function is not concerned with the ability to write poems. It is used to do something with creativity. It uses jokes and metaphors . In short, I can say it is dealing with word-play. The phatic function is taken from Broislowski, and stresses the maintenance of the relationship between the speaker and the hearer. Roman Jakson,(1960). In the phatic function, the massage is not important. The multilingual function refers to the ability to talk about talk, to refer to the code rather than just use it. Roman Jakson,(1960). Up to now, I have discussed language functions from point of three scientists. Every one of them discuss this issue and give different classification. Functional approach to language teaching: Functional approach to language teaching concentrates on meaning function. Functional approach has the following three characteristic features: 1) It is based on systemic theory: Systemic theory is a theory of meaning as choice. It means starting with the most general features and proceeding step by step so as to become even more specific. 2) It is functional in three distincts: First, it is concerned with the way language is organized to fulfill communicative functions. Second, it aims to account for three basic kinds of meaning, the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual. Third, each element in a language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system. 3) It is discourse approach. It aims to provide two levels of discourse analysis: the first is the understanding f the text. The second is the evaluation of the text. Halliday,( 1985). Functional approach may be found in the following forms. It could be found in, introducing other people, apologizing , asking and giving information. Functional approach to language teaching is used in educational environments. It helps to present specific purposes for a speaker to achieve his goals. An example, is a context of a classroom in a school requires a special functions. The effect of place and time on language: In fact, the regional areas or places may have a clear effect on the language. For example, the language of the desert in Saudi Arabia is different from the language of the population of other region. The language of the population of the desert is loud and using rough words. Because the nature of the place. They live in an open area so they need to raise their voices. Time as well place has its own effect on the language. Language from generation to generation leaves its impact on the sounds of the language and vocabulary, systems and their structures. We can notice the effect of time in some words that come to be new for different reasons, such as the word (Ø ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ Ùâ‚ ¬ Ø ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡), which comes to be used nowadays widely. Other language functions: There are other functions for language. Ceremonial function, this function is used much in religious purposes. It is used to advise people or to ask them not to do some things. An example of this is, when the preacher stands up on Friday and speak to people. He uses particular words that helps to convey his message. For example, oh people, As Muslims, we have to help each other. Good people do so. There are also , educational function of language and the technical and scientific function of language for communication. H.H. Stern(1983). Actually using language for educational purposes are very common. It is used in the field of teaching and learning. There are some special terms that make this function clear. Conceptual meaning : Conceptual meaning is the original meaning. Conceptual meaning refers to the logical sense of the utterance and is recognizable as a basic component of grammatical competence. It is alternatively described as the cognitive or the denotative meaning (denotation) Lyons, (1981). Conceptual meaning is stable and invariable. It is not affected by any circumstances. It represented as a group of distinctive features. Conceptual meaning is predominant in the informational use of language. Geoffery Leech( 1974 ). Conceptual meaning gives much importance to the relationship between words and their meaning. For example, boy refers to a male adult human being. So mail adult human being is the conceptual meaning of woman. Conceptual meaning depends on the logic. It goes to the basic things. Emotions and Affective Meaning : It is important to know that each person have a different affective meaning for a word. Affective meaning show the personal feelings of the speaker. affective meaning is used to cover the attitudinal emotional factors which can be expressed in anitem of vocabulary. (Ruth Grain and Stuart Redman, 1986). Individual experiences for people have their effect on producing words. The affective meaning deals with the state of the individuals and reflects their attitudes. Euphemism: Let us explain what do we mean by this term. Euphemism refers to the indirect meaning. It deals with changing the expression to a pleasant one. Some euphemisms are used to cause some amusement. Others are used to make confusion. So they are a group of words that are used instead of other words to relax the listener. When a person uses euphemism, he drop the direct meaning. When I say something and I mean something different. He do without the literal meaning. Many people use euphemism to show the good part of the intended issue. They use it to hide not good ideas. An example of this is to use ( passed away ) instead of saying ( died ) . It works here as a kind of politeness. It is much better than saying (died). In fact, euphemism is words that are used to soften the way of our communication. Euphemism is used in all languages. It is a universal feature. Sometimes, it is difficult to tell the truth. It is better to use euphemism because it convey the idea in a polite way. It sometimes a means of amusement. Euphemism is also a way of not giving clear ideas. It misleads the listener. I can say the euphemism is a kind of words that keep the feelings of the listener. Its not necessarily bad to use euphemisms, not in the way of being immoral or committing a crime. But they are ways to help people avoid their real feelings about something. Some euphemisms are definitely culturally reinforced. When someone needs to urinate or defecate, he says, I am going to a restroom. But its not a place to go to rest. Its a place to go and eliminate waste products from our bodies.( Jonathan Brower). Sometimes, euphemism is difficult to understand especially for non native speaker of English. Let us look at the following examples, When someone says, (Sami is between jobs) for me a non native speaker might be somehow difficult to know the meaning. He might think that, Sami has more than job. Actually, this is my opinion. It is not easy to know that this sentence means ( unemployed person). Let us have another example, (tired and emotional) : I heard on the news that Ronaldo was tired and emotional during the interview. For me to hear this in the first time, I thought it Ronaldo was sick for the first word and fall in love for emotional. I interpreted this according to my culture and experience. Also, A person might be tired because he love. But the fact that the meaning is completely different from what I have thought. The previous sentence means that, Ronaldo is drunk. For some reasons, some people would use euphemism to mislead the listener. He might speak about something in the mind and means something else. Jargon: It is a kind of shorthand. It is kind of using some terms which are not clear for most people. Users of jargon may use some common words in a different way to make the meaning unclear. Sometimes, jargon is a way of conveying the ideas quickly. On the other hand, jargon could cause some problems when there are misunderstanding. In other words, when the listener misunderstand the speaker. In general, I can say jargon is useful and useless. Robert Sylwester says, jargon is a simple technical term that a group uses among themselves to quickly communicate a complex concept. Thus, jargon is useful to those who understand the complexity behind the term, but its generally confusing to those without that background knowledge. At its worst, unnecessarily vague jargon confuses everyone, and pretentious jargon disparagingly suggests to common folks that a simple concept that they clearly understand is really much more complex than they think. College texts and computer manuals are notorious for the amount of jargon they contain. Here are some examples related to computer abbreviations: BRB: Be right back Gr8: Great FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions Lol: Laugh out Loud CYA: See you around RAM: Random Access Memory BRB: Be right back Gr8: Great FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions Lol: Laugh out Loud CYA: See you around RAM: Random Access Memory GB: Gigabyte Some examples related to general terms: UFO: Unidentified Flying Object Poker face: A blank expression Let us have a look at the following example, ( plug and play). To me, when I looked at this phrase, I thought it that when I buy a television and I want to turn it on. I just plug it ( connect it ) to the electricity power then it will work. This term is completely different when it is related to business. It refers to that thing that must work entirely with not much thinking involved. Grices Theory: It is important to mention that, in order to understand an utterance is to go beyond the literal meaning interpretation. It is also to go beyond proposition analysis. This implies the existence of unity of what is said and what is implicated. The theory of conversational implicature by Grice is a theory that provides an account of the possibility to give a meaning that extend beyond the literal expressions that are uttered by the conventional sense. Through this theory, it will be available to catch the attention of the speaker and catch the figure of speech within the literary work. It will be also possible to improve the communicative skill. Grice has distinguished between the sentence meaning and the speakers meaning. He looked into the differences between the literal meaning that is contextually dependent and the conversational implicature that is contextually determined. For instance, the statement of this expression He is a fine friend, may convey that fact that the speaker is communicating ironically as the speaker intends that He is not a good friend. To find out such details, it is something dependent on the particular context in which this statement is uttered. Therefore, in order to understand a message is to understand the meanings of the words that are uttered in the message and the grammatical relations between such meanings. This notion usually needs a particular degree of implicitness in the communication. This is what Grice has offered through the introduction of his principle that is called the Co-operative Principle (CP). Through this principle, it is to be aware of the entire communicative intentions as well as the conversational implicature. This is the mechanism to recognize meaning. The conversational implicature theory and its implications will be explored in the following line with reference to its capability in distinguishing meaning. Grices Theory of Conversational Implicature Grice (1975;42) has made a distinction between the meaning of the words, what the speaker literally reports when coming up with them, and what the speaker intends to mean by conveying such words. This is the notion that usually goes beyond what is said. For instance, when someone is asked to lunch and he replies that he has a one oclock class that he is not prepared for; by this, he has conveyed that he will not be coming to lunch, although hasnt literally said so. He wants the second party to understand that by giving a reason for not accepting to have lunch (the need to prepare the class) he intends to inform that he is not coming to lunch due to that reason. The study of such conversational implicatures is the main focus of Grices theory. Conclusion We can say that, there are different functions for language. They are similar. The most important of these functions are, communicating with others and conveying information. Language is a means of communication and understanding each other. Consequently, the more vocabulary you have, the more your relationships with others. Language reflects the culture of the society. Language supplies people with experiences. Language is the mirror that reflects the personality of the individual. It shows the various features and characteristics and the strengths and weaknesses that affect others. It is a real means for a person to express his ideas and thoughts. In fact, forms are very important in forming the functions of language. A question has its special form as in, where are you from?. A statement has its own special form as in, He eats apples. Sometimes, forms do not reflect their functions. For example, I cannot find my keys, spoke for a person who is late for work. It is clear hear that it is a request. It means, could you helping me to find my keys. Age, sex and social situation play a strong role in forming language. Languages may change for many reasons like, geographical region and social levels.

Food Safety And Food Quality Assurance Environmental Sciences Essay

Food Safety And Food Quality Assurance Environmental Sciences Essay The food industry/fish industry has a moral and legal obligation to produce safe and wholesome food. Food firm management must continue to be the first line of defense in the production and manufacture of safe food (Alli, 2004). The first step in food safety program is a food factory safety program is the establishment of a safety committee with full authority for assuring the manufacture of safe and wholesomeness of food. The second major safety compound which is important in any food firm are the methods on the food processing. The food plant must have strict operating specifications or every unit operation in the plant. Every food plant has different operating specification even it plant processes same products. The third key safety factor in every food firm is the hazards associated with the various commodities and/or the various processes or usually methods in use. Raw material that are use in food plant should be monitor by the quality assurance team. It is to reduce hazard on raw material. Furthermore, on food processing plant, hazard may also appear. Biological, chemical, and physical hazards can cause seafood-related illnesses. Biological hazards include Clostridium botulinum, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella, E. coli, and pathogenic staphylococcus. Chemical hazards include compounds such as Pb, carcinogenic compound, , which can cause illness from long-term exposure. Physical hazards include foreign objects in food that can cause harm when eaten, such as glass, hair, , or metal fragments. Food Safety and Food Quality Assurance Food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and eaten according to its intended use. The assurance that food may not cause harm, injury, or illness is determined by (1) all harmful substances present in the food have been eliminated or prevented from exceeding the acceptable level; and (2) the food has been prepared, handled, and stored under controlled and sanitary conditions in conformance with practices prescribed by government regulation (Alli, 2004). The fish industry, like many other industries, has used basic quality control programs, and more complex quality assurance programs and quality management systems, in its efforts to achieve food quality. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) and the Hazard Analytical Critical Control Point (HCCP) system can be integrated into a food industry, quality management system, or inspection and monitoring materials, products, and processes for food safety hazards can be part of quality control program. On implementation of food safety system, food industry policies should be based on food safety regulation. There are some food safety regulations as follows: Food safety regulation 1995 in the UK These regulations came into force on 15 September 1995 and implement the provision of the directive on hygiene foodstuff (93/94/EEC; section 12.3.2.1.) except for those which relate to temperature control (section 12.5.4.). This main feature of regulations is that proprietors are required to identify and control food safety risk at all stages in preparation and selling of food using hazard analysis (Forshyte and Hayes, 1998). This must be done according to the following principles: Analysis of potential food hazards in the operation. Identification of those points in the operation where hazards, may occur. Deciding which the points identified is critical to ensuring food safety. Identifying and implementing effective control and monitoring procedures at those critical points. Review of the system periodically and whenever the operation changes. Fish, shellfish and fishery products legislation in the EC Legislation Council Directive 91/493/EEC legislation is concerned directly with fish. This legislation aims to harmonize measures for the handling and treatment of all fish and shellfish at all stages up to retailing. There is the usual detail in food standards, this covering factory vessels and fish processing factory. The Council Directive, 91/492/EEC lays down health conditions for the production and placing on the market of live bivalve mollusks (Foshyte and Hayes, 1998). The commission Decision 93/51/EEC on the microbiological criteria applicable to the production of cooked crustaceans and mollusks shellfish is summarized in Table 1.1. The Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulation in the USA According to Forsythe and Hayes (1998), this regulation is divided into four subparts, as follows: General provision: This part is concerning personnel. No person affected by disease or boils, sores, infected wounds, etc, may work in food premises where there is a reasonable possibly of food being contaminated or other personnel infected. Building and facilities: the need for clean surround to factories is stressed so that pets are not attracted and food not contaminated. Factories should be constructed so that cleaning is facilitated and adequate working and storage space should be provided. Floors, walls and ceilings should be constructed well to allow for adequate cleaning, duct and pipes should not be suspended working areas where drip or condensate may contaminate food materials or food contact surfaces. Table 1.1. The examples bacteriological standards for fish products in several countries Countries Standard Product Microorganism Level EU Fish products 91/493/EEC and Commision Decision 93/51/EEC Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish Salmonella Absent in 25 g, n=5, c=0 Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish Other pathogens and toxin thereof Not to be present in quantities such as to affect health Whole products Mesophilic aerobic bacteria m = 10000 M = 100000 n = 5 c = 2 Crab meat Mesophilic aerobic bacteria m = 100000 M = 1000000 n = 5 c = 2 France Sliced fish, crumbed or not; fresh fish fillets, refrigerated Total aerobes Faecal coliforms S. aureus Anaerobic shulphite reducer Salmonella 50.000 per g max 10 per g max 100 per g max 2 per g max Absent in 25 g Shellfish, bivalves, urchins live Faecal coliforms Faecal streptococci Samonellas 300 per 100 ml max 2500 per 100 ml max Absent in 25 g USA Marshall (1986) Crab meat, fresh or frozen E. coli 4 per g max Shrimps, raw, breaded Viable aerobic bacteria 100000 per g max E. coli 4 per g max S. aureus 100 per g max Japan Marshall (1986) Frozen foods: Require only thawing before consumsption Total viable bacteria Coliforms Absent in 1 g Heated before consumption Total viable bacteria Coliforms Absent in 1 g Raw oyster Total viable bacteria;E coli 50000 per g max; 230 per 100 g max Korea Anon (1995) Fish product Number of bacteria Coliform E coli Negative for sterilized products Exection half-processed surimi Negative for half-processed surimi Source: Forsythe and Hayes (1998)Equipment. This subpart includes a very brief description of desirable features in the design and construction of food processing equipment. Design and construction must ensure that contamination of food with lubricants, fuel, metal fragments, etc. are avoided. Food contact surfaces must be corrosion resistant, made of non-toxic materials and be resistant to the action of any food materials. Production and process control. This subpart includes regulations for the inspection, cleaning and storage of raw materials, restrictions on the use of food premises, and equipment and regulations on the cleaning and maintenance of equipment. International implementation of HACCP concept HACCP is internationally accepted as the major means of assuring food safety as promoted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). The joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission describes the steps needed to implement the HACCP system. Before implementing a company should have minimum hygiene measures, for example, according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the appropriate Codex Codes of Practice and appropriate food safety legislation. These requirements should be well specified and documented, fully operational and verified in order to facilitate the successful application and implementation of HACCP (National Board of Experts-HACCP, 2002 in Plaggenhoef et al., 2002 ) The HACCP system which is science based and systematic, identifies specific hazards and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying mainly on end-product testing (FAO/WHO, 1997). e. ISO 22000:2005 ISO 22000 is international standard that was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 34, Food products. This International Standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management system that combines the fol owing general y recognized key elements to ensure food safety along the food chain, up to the point of final consumption: interactive communication, system management, prerequisite programs, and HACCP principles. This International Standard integrates the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system and application steps developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. By means of auditable requirements, it combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite programs (PRPs). This International Standard specifies requirements for a food safety management system where an organization in the food chain needs to demonstrate its ability to control food safety hazards in order to ensure that food is safe at the time of human consumption (ISO, 2005). 1.3. The Relationship between Prerequisite program, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) and TQM (Total Quality Management) Fish plants that operate with HACCP system will have the required prerequisite programs that includes GMP and some industry sectors in Indonesia include SSOP. The fish processing plants that do not have HACCP system, the GMP remains essential for addressing food safety. It is more appropriate for the HACCP prerequisite to be used instead of the basic GMP. The prerequisite programs provides more comprehensive coverage of the requirements relating to conditions and activities in a food plant than will the GMP. In food plants that do not operate with HACCP systems but have implemented the ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems standard, as a minimum the GMP should be part of the applicable regulatory requirements of the standard (Alli, 2004). All food plants need to develop and implement a program of GMP to address food safety requirement. Food plants that develop and implement the HACCP systems to address food safety also need to develop and implement the HACCP prerequisite programs. The activities for GMP or the HACCP prerequisite programs that are developed at a food plant should be documented as SOP. In addition, where monitoring, inspection, or testing is carried out as part of the programs, records should be kept as evidence that these activities are actually performed (Alli, 2004). HACCP is an approach to hygienic food production by prevention of problem (Forsythe and Hayes, 1998). The hazards analysis portion of HACCP involves a systematic study of the ingredients, the food product, the conditions of processing, handling, storage, packaging, distribution and consumer use (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). TQM is an effort for continuously improving the quality of all process, products, and services through universal participation of all employees, that lead greater customer satisfaction and loyality, and improved business results (Sarvadan, 1992 in Pearson and Dutson, 1999). In many cases, the TQM approach has produced remarkable changes in how management and employees envision and interpret quality. The TQM approach requires a company to develop a strategy, involving all levels and functions of the company, which focuses on satisfying the customer. Everyone involved TQM will have a new mind set towards quality. Consequently, there will be a drastic and permanent change in the culture of company, giving company personnel an entirely new focus on quality improvement (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). The combination of TQM and HAACP, include GMP and SSOP, provides a total systems approach to food processing, encompassing the elements of food safety, food quality and food productivity (NFPA, 1992). This combine method will stress commitment, education, preventive and corrective action, statistical control, record keeping, verification and teamwork (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). TQM teams, responsible for developing and implementing HACCP, should comprise representatives from a variety of discipline and workers from all levels. This type of diversity assures effective evaluation of all areas that may have an impact on safe food processing (Pearson and Dutson, 1999). Summary In summary, hazard in food industry may be includes biological, physical, and microbiological aspects. They present new challenges to the industry and they must be eliminated during the manufacture of safe and wholesomeness food. All finished product must be audited for quality assurance through the marketing channel, and every plant must establish quality assurance department with full authority to uphold the policies and standards of food firm for the production of safe and safety. High quality foods that are safe are in great demand and the technology is available to any food firm to live well within the rules and regulation for the production of foods that are most acceptable.

Computer Engineering :: essays research papers

Computer Engineering Choosing a career is very important in a person’s life. Over the past two decades, many professions have change significantly with the influx of technological developments. One needs to think about the things that interest them and what kind of lifestyle they want to have. Some things a person should think about are what qualifications are needed, what type of training is necessary, and the future need of the career they choose. Some other things to consider would be how much money they will make, what is the probability of advancement, and does the career satisfy their need for an enjoyable life. One career in the technological industry is a computer engineer. A computer engineer is a person who designs hardware or software for computers. Computer engineers do research to determine what people want and need to make their lives easier. Computer engineers sometimes work on a team to think of new ideas and concepts. Engineers generally should like activities of a technical nature, problem solving, and math. An engineer should probably like working with numbers and thinking logically. A computer-engineering career requires the most education of any career in the computer industry. Some school subjects that are helpful in preparing a person who wants to become a computer engineer are algebra, geometry, calculus, trigonometry, computer science, and English. Computer engineers need to be able to think logically, communicate ideas clearly, and work well in a team environment. To become a computer engineer a degree in computer science, engineering, or physics is required. Computer engineers spend an extended amount of time typing. A computer engineer should also expect to work long hours and enjoy working with new ideas and concepts. Becoming a proficient typist would be something to consider when a person is interested in becoming a computer engineer. In 1947 Howard Aiken, an engineer, predicted six computers would satisfy the computing needs of the U.S. By the year 1955, 244 computer systems were in use and by 1984 U.S. businesses and individuals purchased over two million personal computers. By 1994, shipments of over 47 million personal computers were made worldwide. The use of personal computers has increased rapidly over the past half-century and therefore the need for new hardware and software will keep the need for computer engineers to continue producing new products. The first position for a person becoming a computer Engineer is a Junior Computer Engineer.

Farenheit 451 as a Warning :: Farenheit 451 Essays

Farenheit 451 as a Warning What are the rights of a government? Does the government have the right to control what we think and where we get our intellectual stimulation? After the Constitution of the United States was drafted, a Bill of Rights containing ten articles was adopted and ratified by the thirteen states. In the first article, it guaranteed the people the freedom of religion, speech, the press, and public assembly. People were given the right to enrich themselves with knowledge accumulated through their readings from whatever source they chose and to make criticism towards the government as they saw fit. Because of the liberty given to its people, it is no wonder that the United States government is considered a model government in the world today. Any sound government would allow its people to make their own free judgement according to their knowledge from any sources they may gather. Ray Bradbury's vision of a disordered world was expressed in his book Fahrenheit 451. Set in the future, it deals with a man's struggle between his destructive government position and his inner self-conscience. Guy Montag was a fireman but he did not put out fires. Instead, he created them through the burning of books. This was what Bradbury was trying to imply through the title of his book, Fahrenheit 451, the temperature at which books burn. Montag was leading a fairly happy life until he met a girl, Clarisse, who aroused his deepest feelings and fears. He became curious about the contents of books and wondered why they were so feared. This led him through a series of events which changed his life forever. When Montag asked Beatty about the burning of books he was told, "If you don't want a man to be unhappy politically, don't give him two sides to a question to worry him; give him one. Better yet, give him none." The futurist government displayed in Fahrenheit 45 1 tried to prevent any feelings or opinions contrary to their own because they did not want to be challenged. Instead, they fed unwanted junk into the minds of their people through the parlor, a wall to wall television. This machine, that does not inspire the thinking process, lead them to make the conclusion that their world revolves around it and nothing else.

Argument Against Reality Television Essay -- Persuasive Essays, Argum

What pleasure do you get from watching a group of people humiliate themselves in the name of television? Media both in the UK and around the world seem to have "discovered" that so-called "reality" shows are very profitable, resulting in a growing string of such shows in recent years. Although not all are successful, many do achieve significant popularity and cultural prominence. That does not mean, however, that they are good for society or that they should be aired. Can you honestly say, that after absorbing the reality rubbish, you have learned something? Educational, stimulating, witty, are all adjectives you would not associate with reality television. Reality T.V is a case of vegetating in front of the screen and glazing gormlessly at a group of half-hearted celebrities as they involve themselves inà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ a deep philosophical conversation. Not only does Reality Television reflect appallingly on our media culture, but it corrupts the mind of youngsters, giving them twisted views on society. What person are you becoming if you are sitting there daydreaming about who is going to be "evicted" from Big Brother? Well, you're the one the needs a snap back to realityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ One of the attractions of reality television is the supposed "reality" of it - unscripted and unplanned situations and reactions. One of the ethical problems of reality television is the fact that it isn't nearly as "real" as it pretends to be. At least in dramatic shows one can expect the audience to understand that what they see on the screen doesn't necessarily reflect the reality of the actors' lives; the same, however, cannot be said for heavily edited and con... ...tem from the increasing separation we experience from others around us. The more distant we are from each other as individuals, the more readily we can objectify each other and fail to experience sympathy and empathy when others around us suffer. The fact that we are witnessing events not in front of us but rather on television, where everything is has an unreal and fictional air about it, probably aids in this process as well. I'm not saying that you should never watch reality TV programming, but the motivations behind being a viewer are ethically suspect. Instead of passively accepting whatever media companies try to feed you, it would be better to take some time to reflect on why such programming is made and why you feel attracted to it. Perhaps you will find that your motivations themselves are not so attractive.

Critically Examine the Arguments for and Against Deliberately Trying to Change Organizations

Assessed Essay OC4 â€Å"Critically examine the arguments for and against deliberately trying to change organizations† Introduction Before we begin to explore whether it is a worthwhile exercise to seek to change an organisation through a planned approach we must first begin with a definition of our terms. What might we mean by â€Å"deliberate†, â€Å"change† and an â€Å"organisation† To do so will help us explore under what circumstances planned change may be worthwhile or even possible. Huczynski & Buchanan (1991) define organizations as â€Å"social arrangements for the controlled performance of collective goals†. This definition fits well those who would propose a deliberate change approach as it suggests an element of control of the organisation is possible. It also pictures the organisation as a separate entity whose goal is to control and that there is agreement by the members on what these goals should be. The fits with the roots of Organisational Development that the performance of the organisation can be enhanced by exerting control in some way over the structures, processes and individuals that make up the organisation. Some would take issue however with the concept of the organisation as a seperate entity: Morgan (1986) â€Å"organizations are complex and paradoxical phenomena that can be understood in different ways† thus change of the organisation is a much more complex issue. In Morgans view, the idea that we can identify the elements that make up the organisation, in the same way that you might dismantle a machine, does not allow for the complexity that exists. As our view of the organisation affects our perspective our definition of the type of change we are examining will also affect the scope of our investigation. Schein (1969) defines change as â€Å"the initiation of new patterns of action, belief and attitudes among substantial segments of the population†. Change is something that is started by someone (a change agent), but does not necessarily need to involve everyone. For Schein, change is deep rooted in that it goes beyond the surface level change of process and goes to the core of behaviour: beliefs and attitudes. Lippett (1973) uses a broader definition: â€Å"any planned or unplanned alteration to the status quo†. We will explore whether, using such a broad definition, the planned approach might be more suitable to particular contexts. Our final term in need of definition is â€Å"deliberate change†. Ford & Ford (1995) define this as â€Å"when a change agent deliberately and consciously sets out to establish conditions and circumstances that are different from what they are now and then accomplishes that through some set or series of actions and interventions either singularly or in collaboration with other people†. Thus deliberate change involves intent that distinguishes it from change which is not consciously produced and instead occurs as a series of side effects, accidents or unanticipated consequences of actions. The Arguments for Deliberate Change 1. Performance is enhanced by the controlled introduction of change rather than allowing it to happen haphazardly. It is worth noting that the classical approach, from which this argument derives, was developed during a period when the management approach was fairly reactive and adhoc. The scientific approach to management was an attempt to create order and efficiency. Fayol (1949), suggested the role of mangers is to plan, organise, command, co-ordinate and control. Critics of the approach would attack the concept of leadership portrayed by Fayol and others e. g. Collins who speaks of â€Å"Level 5† leaders who are more servants than charismatic controllers; those who would look in the mirror when performance dips and praise their team for the successes achieved. Those who would act more as facilitators than controllers. There is also wider criticism of the notion that planned change is good for organisations per se. This seems to be a notion that permeates much of OD literature, that individuals need to be controlled for change to be effective.. Croch et al challenges the view that because leaders see unprecedented turbulence they act as a buffer to the organisation to minimise this by resistance, denial or inaction. Leaders are inherently obstructionist in their stance. Burnes & Stalker (1961) found that rather than act as a blocker to change; leaders seized the opportunity to initiate action. Thus one could argue that rather than needing to control individual action it may be more appropriate to allow individuals the freedom to seize the opportunities that prevail around them. One could also question the view that planned change is more effective than â€Å"unplanned† change. Studies examining the success of transformations have suggested that 66% of organisations fail in their change efforts (Sturdy 7 Grey (2003) 2. Change now takes place at an ever accelerating rate, if managers do not plan how to deal with change there is a danger that the organisation will be driven by vagaries of its environment. Some critics would question the notion that change is as rapid and all pervasive as some writers would suggest. Weick (1985) would argue that the turbulence is only created in the perception of those who create the turbulence rather than by the events themselves. One could argue that rather than planned change perhaps there is a call for planned stability. Individuals may be getting tired of the changes that are imposed upon them and instead seek stability in their environment. Some would argue change has always been with us, others would argue that stability is equally as prevalent. The notion that change is a given is built on Darwinian concept that all things evolve in a common way to attain improved circumstances. 3. Planned change is the most effective way to deliver the performance as organisations need long term strategic plans to enable them to attain the results they require. This build from a top down view of the organisation guided by a group of rational individuals who make decisions for the good of the organsiation and its members. Taylor (1911) and his scientific view of management â€Å"the work of everyman is fully planned out by management† supported the concept of leaders as rational decision makers, fully able to plan every task of the workers who in turn simply carried out the tasks assigned to them. John Harvey-Jones and would support this managerialist position by building a picture of the â€Å"hero† manager fully capable of implementing any change they see fit. The argument also portrays the change process itself as rational capable of being controlled e. g. Leighs (1988) who identifies a list of internal and external triggers to change that can enable the control to take place. Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for taking an acontextual, atheoretical and aprocessual stance: organisations are not this independent entity that the writers suggest. Clegg (1990) suggests organisations are embedded in a network of wider social relationships. Organisations don’t just reside in an environment; they are part of its fabric. Thus even if the leaders have the skills the control of the complexity would be beyond them. There is also criticism aimed at the assumption that planned change results in the intended outcomes. Grevenhoest et al (2003) â€Å"The outcome of the change process is often different from what was planned and new projects are often started before previous ones have finished properly† Other studies have questioned the success rate of planned change in achieving their initial goals. What would be the â€Å"success rate† of unplanned change? How much change takes place as a reaction of internal and external forces rather than through some strategic planning process? 3. Planned change enables the change agent and those implementing the change to take into account a range of issues that would not otherwise be included. Although this may be true it does not necessarily follow that this means they are able to influence or control these factors. The argument, by adopting a scientific approach assumes that by identifying the issues the individuals then have the skills and ability to manipulate the â€Å"issues† to make the change more effective. Such capacity, even if it is possible, presumes highly sophisticated skills. Would the individuals possess such skills? . Planned change enables leaders of the change to ensure that the changes are introduced in such a way that they are accepted by the individuals within the organisation. Ford & Ford (1995) point to the power of communication in driving change. â€Å"everything, including prevailing conditions and circumstances, is seen as created by and in communication†¦ in the absence of communica tion there is no intentional change. † Such communications follow fairly simple patterns and the drivers of change can use different types of conversation to make the changes happen. At a more macro Level Lewin (1951) placed the individual in the group to which they belong which forms the individuals perceptions, feelings and actions. He maintained the status quo is held together by various field forces which, when identified could be strengthened or diminished to bring about the necessary change. By â€Å"unfreezing† the status quo, then â€Å"moving† to the new state and finally â€Å"re freezing† the changes become effective. These concepts seem to adopt a rather simplified view of individual behaviour and of the change process itself. They imply change can be mapped as a set of stages hat individuals go through and which can then be planned and controlled, e. g. by the use of communication techniques. Bandura (1986) questions this simplistic approach to individual behaviour and instead proposes a social cognitive view â€Å" people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli†¦behavi our, cognitive and other personal forces and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other. Arguments against Planned Change Burnes and Salauroo (1995) aim four criticisms at the planned change approach: 1. Much of OD on which it is based was designed for top-down, autocratic; rule based organisations, which operated in a predictable and stable environment. Such a picture of the organisation is one that the management Guru’s of the 1980’s and 1990’s fought against (Peters & Waterman, Kanter) arguing instead for an organisation that was bottom up, that was built around team working rather than hierarchy. Involving matrix management and extended spans of control rather than vast hierarchical structures to exercises control over the workers. Handy (2001) now argues that such vast hierarchical organisations will be few in numbers and instead the workforce will be epitomised by â€Å"fleas† living in some symbiotic relationship but over whom the large organisations have little control. Thus one should not attempt to apply the principles to a business environment that undergoes constant change and whose watchwords are consultation and facilitation rather than authority and control. However to suggest that all organisations have moved away from a top down, autocratic stance is perhaps a little naive. Many may advocate a consultative approach but it is still the board of directors who make the strategic decisions. There is also the argument highlighted previously that the notion of rapid continual change is one of perception rather than concrete reality. 2. The focus of planned change tends to be on incremental change, taking place through a series of defined and controllable phases (Lewin) and so it is unable to incorporate radical transformational change (Schein) Planned change involves detailed diagnosis of the issues, action and then evaluation before further action and evaluation in an iterative cycle. It recognises change needs to be self-sustaining. Quinn (1980) draws a picture of the executive who seeks out, through various channels, a range of data before proactively taking steps to â€Å"implant support†, form coalitions, and constantly re evaluate the direction of the organisation as he moved it gradually in the direction he seeks. Such planned change, could be very costly and labour intensive. Payne & Reddin’s study of a major change at a tobacco factory calculated the cost as 25-person manager years of OD. Is such a cost justified in light of the research that suggests much of the changes would prove ineffective? In the case of rapid, radical change a coercive approach might be more appropriate than the planned approach. Does change really take place in such a controlled, phased way? Are change agents able to introduce change in such a controlled way? What about the role of power and politics? Buchanan & Badham suggested that politics is a reality and by necessity change agents have to get involved otherwise the changes are likely to fail. However, would the change agent have the skills to engage in such behaviour successfully? If the change involves culture change, difficulties start at the analysis stage as culture is difficult to define therefore how can you then plan to make changes? Where would the start and end point be and how would you evaluate the differences? 3. Planned change makes the assumption that there is common agreement between all parties and that they all have a willingness and interest in making the changes. It seems to adopt a unitarist approach to change that suggests organisations are essentially co operative, that little conflict exists amongst the members on the overall aims of the organisation. Both the pluralist and radical schools would argue much conflict exists in reality. The radical school might go as far as to suggest that the workers need protection from management, as the drivers of the two groups are completely different. Certainly the planned approach seems to view the managers as rational, altruistic individuals who always act for the good of the organisation and its members. Bowman C. (1999) suggests that changes to the status quo tend to emerge from action and rarely come from strategic analysis. It is far better then for changes to take place as a stream of decisions over time than agreeing some common vision of the outcomes intended by the changes. The Marxist view would challenge this by suggesting that as their focus is on increasing profits, by necessity that involves the exploitation of the members of the organisation. 4. The planned approach assumes the approach is suitable for all organisations. Pettigrew & Whipp (1991) instead suggest that no such universal rules exist and leading change actually involves a flow of actions that need to be appropriate to the context rather then working through some recipe for success as is suggested by some texts e. g. Leighs (1988) â€Å"Effective change: twenty ways to make it happen† Pettigrew (1985) criticises the approach for concentrating on change episodes rather than the â€Å"processual dynamics of changing†. Few have undertaken longitudinal studies to explore the process of change which would enable you to place the changes in the context within which they occur: For Pettigrew it is these structures and contexts which give the changes â€Å"form, meaning and dynamic†. He also criticises planned change for assuming managers work to achieve an end state that is knowable and achievable whereas change is a complex process that doesn’t occur in bite size chunks. You need to explore the process of changing and not just the change itself. This is perhaps rather a harsh criticism, as it was not suggested that the approach would suit all situations at all times. In fact the focus is very much on incremental change however even here critics question the basic tenets of the approach built on the idea that change takes place as a steady flow of incremental changes towards a common goal. Gersick (1991) suggests a â€Å"punctuated equilibrium paradigm† through which to view change to challenge the view that individual systems develop along the same path. Gersick proposes the notion of periods of equilibrium punctuated by revolutionary periods that cause upheaval in the change process rather than some gradual incremental step to the end goal. Van de Van & Poole (1995) suggest that rather than take the â€Å"one shoe fits all approach† we need to look at the different perspectives through which writers view change and explore where they are inter related. One could also argue that the planned approach to change suggests that conflict needs to be eliminated and organisations need to strive for a smooth transition from one state to another. The notion goes back to the notion that change occurs in phases and the concept that individuals reaction hen faced with change is to attempt to block it. There has also been much criticism of the planned approach in that, although it attempts to tackle â€Å"how to implement change† when it comes to specific guidance the writers provide little substance. Recipes for success do exist however they are very general in their approach e. g. The planned approach seems to view change as episodic, the result being that it takes the view that the organisation exists in a stable environment which is interrupted by periods of change which need to be controlled to ensure a smooth transition from one state to another and recreate the stability. The role of the change agent is to create the change by focusing on leverage points that will help ensure any conflict is resolved. It is possible however to take a different perspective: Weick & Quinn (1999) Organisations are not specific entities but social processes, which are emergent and constantly changing rather than inert. Change instead of punctuated equilibrium is a pattern of endless incremental modifications that is driven by a range of internal and external forces. As such rather than using a set recipe for success the individuals involved in the change need a vast range of skills to enable them to adapt to the forces affecting them. Change is not an end state but a process that is cyclical. The role of the change agent is to facilitate rather than create, to redirect the change that already takes place rather than create change. However Weick and Quinn argue that because episodic change examines change at the macro level and continuous change at the micro level it is possible to reconcile the two approaches. â€Å" Change is a mixture of reactive and proactive modifications, guided by purposes at hand, rather than an intermittent interruption of periods of convergence†. Collins (1998) â€Å"change and continuity are not alternative objective states†¦. Because they are typically coexistent†¦what constitutes change or continuity is perspective dependent† One could ask the question: Do managers need to learn how to manage change or â€Å"enhance stability and learn to manage continuity if they want to survive? † References Armenakis, A. A. and Bedeian A. G. (1999) Organizational Change: a Review of Theory and research in the 1990s. Journal of Management 25 (3) 293-315. Bandura, A. 1986 Social Foundations of thought and Action: a social cognitive theory. Bowman, C. 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